Edible mushroom

Edible mushrooms are the fleshy fruit bodies of numerous species of properly identified and prepared fungi. Edibility may be defined by criteria including their palatability and absence of dangerous mycotoxins. Edible mushrooms are consumed for their nutritional and culinary value, often either being cultivated or harvested wild. Easily cultivated and common wild mushrooms are often available in markets; those that are more difficult to obtain may be collected on a smaller scale.

To ensure safety, wild mushrooms must be correctly identified before their edibility can be assumed. Deadly poisonous mushrooms that are frequently confused with edible mushrooms include several species of the genus Amanita, particularly A. phalloides (the death cap). Some mushrooms that are edible for most people can cause allergic reactions in others; old or improperly stored specimens can cause food poisoning. Additionally, mushrooms can absorb chemicals from polluted locations, accumulating pollutants and potentially lethal heavy metals.

Psychoactive mushrooms can also be confused with edible species. Additionally, mushrooms were consumed medicinally in traditional medicine, but are not upheld by evidence. Edible species typically must be cooked, sometimes requiring parboiling or slow cooking to destroy toxins, with only select species able to be eaten raw. Many can also be canned, dried, pickled, or salted.

Description

Edibility may be defined by criteria including desirable taste and aroma and the absence of poisonous effects on humans. Edible mushrooms are consumed for their nutritional and culinary value. Mushrooms, especially dried shiitake, are sources of umami flavor. Edible mushrooms include many fungal species that are either harvested wild or cultivated.

Wild mushrooms can appear either below ground (hypogeous) or above ground (epigeous) and can be picked by hand. Correct identification is required to prevent the confusion of potentially fatal poisonous mushrooms with edible ones. Some edible species cannot be identified without the use of advanced techniques such as chemistry or microscopy.

Easily cultivated and common wild mushrooms are often available in grocery stores and farmers' markets when in season; those that are more difficult to obtain (such as the truffle, matsutake, and morel) may be collected on a smaller scale and are sometimes even sold as luxury items. Mushrooms can be purchased fresh and many are also sold dried.

List of edible mushrooms

Scientific name	Common name	Description	Distribution	Cultivation	Edibility
Agaricus arvensis	Horse mushroom	Up to 20 cm (8 in) wide; resembles deadly Amanita species	Britain and North America	Harvested wild	Edible for most people, but can resemble deadly Amanitas
Agaricus bisporus	Button mushroom, common mushroom, cremini, portobello, and others	As it ages, it turns from small, white and smooth to large and light brown.	Widespread^{[citation needed]} in rich soil	Widely cultivated	Edible and widely consumed
Agaricus campestris	Field mushroom	Up to 12 cm (4+1⁄2 in) wide; resembles deadly Amanitas	Widespread in grasses	Harvested wild	Choice, but can resemble poisonous species
Agaricus silvaticus	Pinewood mushroom	Up to 10 cm wide		Harvested wild	Edible cooked, but resembles some inedible species
Aleuria aurantia	Orange peel fungus	Up to 10 cm wide, orange, cup-shaped, and fuzzy	Europe and North America	Harvested wild	Edible but difficult to collect
Amanita caesarea	Caesar's Amanita	Orange to red cap, up to 20 cm wide; resembles the poisonous Amanita muscaria	North Africa, Eurasia, and North America	Harvested wild	Edible, reportedly raw and cooked
Amanita fulva	Tawny grisette	Up to 10 cm wide; resembles poisonous Amanitas	Europe and North America		Edible cooked
Amanita muscaria	Fly agaric	Red cap with white warts; up to 30 cm wide	Widespread; symbiotic with various trees		Parboiling is required. When fresh, it contains the hallucinogen muscimol and some ibotenic acid.
Amanita rubescens	Blusher	Up to 15 cm wide; resembles related species	Eurasia,^{[citation needed]} western North America		Edible when cooked, which destroys a toxin
Armillaria mellea	Honey mushroom	Up to 15 cm wide	Eurasia,^{[citation needed]} North America	Harvested wild	Edible, usually excluding the tough stalk; best when young and well-cooked
Boletus edulis	Porcino	Reddish-brown cap up to 30 cm or more wide	Widespread in Northern Hemisphere	Commercially harvested	Choice
Boletus pinophilus	Pine bolete	Cap up to 40 cm wide	Eurasia	Commercially harvested	Reportedly edible
Boletus variipes		Tannish cap	Eastern North America with hardwoods	Commercially harvested	Choice
Calbovista subsculpta	Sculptured giant puffball	Up to 15 cm (6 in) wide	Western North America in montane areas	Commercially harvested	Choice while the gleba is still firm and white
Calocybe gambosa	St. George's mushroom	Up to 15 cm wide	Europe from spring to summer	Harvested wild	Edible cooked or pickled
Calvatia cyathiformis	Purple-spored puffball	Up to 20 cm wide	North America and Australia	Harvested wild	Reportedly edible when young
Calvatia gigantea	Giant puffball	Up to 60 cm (20 in) wide and 20 kilograms (45 lb)	Temperate areas around the world in meadows, fields, and deciduous forests from late summer and autumn	Commercially harvested	Choice when immature and white, but may cause a laxative effect
Cantharellus cibarius	Golden chanterelle	Up to 15 cm wide	Europe	Commercially harvested	Choice but resembles some poisonous mushrooms
Cerioporus squamosus	Dryad's saddle and pheasant's back mushroom	Up to 30 cm wide or more	Europe and eastern U.S.	Harvested wild	Edible young and cooked
Chroogomphus	Pine-spikes or spike-caps		Northern Hemisphere	Harvested wild	Some edible species
Collybia nuda	Blewit	Up to 15 cm wide; may resemble toxic Cortinarius species	Europe and North America	Commercially harvested	Edible
Collybia personata (syn. Lepista saeva)	Field blewit or blue leg	Up to 12 cm wide	Europe		Edible
Coprinopsis atramentaria (syn. Coprinus atramentarius)	Common inkcap	Up to 10 cm wide	Northern Hemisphere and Australia		Edible when young but toxic if consumed with alcohol due to the presence of coprine
Coprinus comatus	Shaggy mane, shaggy inkcap or lawyer's wig	Up to 8 cm wide	North America in grasslands and meadows	Harvested wild	Must be cooked as soon as possible after harvesting or the caps will deliquesce (turn to 'ink')
Cortinarius caperatus	Gypsy mushroom	Tannish cap, up to 12 cm wide	Northern Europe and northern North America	Commercially harvested	Choice, but can resemble some poisonous European species
Craterellus cornucopioides	Trumpet of death or horn of plenty	Up to 8 cm wide	Eurasia, North America, and Australia	Commercially harvested	Choice
Craterellus tubaeformis	Tube chanterelle or yellowfoot	Up to 4 cm wide	North America and Asia	Commercially harvested	Choice
Cyclocybe aegerita	Poplar fieldcap	Up to 10 cm wide	Grows on poplars and other trees	Commercially cultivated in Asia and Australia	Difficult to identify
Cyttaria espinosae			Chile	Harvested wild	Edible
Fistulina hepatica	Beefsteak polypore or ox tongue	Up to 6 cm wide	Europe and North America	Harvested wild	Edible but older specimens should be soaked overnight then cooked to avoid gastric upset
Flammulina filiformis	Enoki	Up to 4.5 cm wide	Asia	Commercially cultivated	Asian cuisine
Flammulina velutipes	Velvet shank		Europe and North America	Harvested wild	Edible cooked, best with the skin removed
Gomphidius glutinosus	Slimy spike-cap			Harvested wild	Edible but possibly not recommended; accumulates heavy metals
Grifola frondosa	Hen of the woods or sheep's head	Large mushroom	Eastern North America	Commercially harvested	Choice but some may be allergic
Gyromitra esculenta	False morel, turban or brain mushroom		North America and Central Europe		Parboiling required to reduce gyromitrin toxicity, which may not be fully effective
Handkea utriformis (syn. Calvatia utriformis)		Puffball, up to 20 cm wide	Widespread in northern temperate zones	Harvested wild	Edible when immature and white
Hericium erinaceus	Lion's mane	A tooth fungus		Commercially harvested
Hydnum repandum	Sweet tooth or hedgehog mushroom			Commercially harvested
Hygrophorus chrysodon	Gold flecked woodwax		Northern Hemisphere	Harvested wild	Edible but bland
Hypsizygus tessulatus	Beech mushroom			Commercially cultivated	Tough flesh
Imleria badia	Bay bolete	Up to 10 cm wide	Eurasia and North America	Harvested wild	Edible but allergenic for some
Kalaharituber pfeilii			Southern Africa	Harvested wild	Edible
Laccocephalum mylittae	Blackfellow's bread			Harvested wild	Edible but not choice
Lactarius corrugis			Eastern North America with oak, July–Sept.		Choice
Lactarius deliciosus	Saffron milk cap			Commercially harvested	Not necessarily choice, but popular in Russia
Lactarius deterrimus	Orange milkcap			Harvested wild	Edible
Lactarius hygrophoroides			Eastern North America with oak, June–Sept.		Edible
Lactarius indigo			Northern Hemisphere	Harvested wild	Edible
Lactarius paradoxus			Southern and eastern U.S., autumn–winter		Edible but bitter with age
Lactarius rubrilacteus			Western North America, June–Oct.	Harvested wild	Edible but grainy
Lactarius subdulcis	Mild milkcap			Harvested wild	Edible when cooked but not choice
Lactarius volemus	Fishy milkcap			Harvested wild	Edible but grainy; best slow-cooked
Laetiporus sulphureus	Sulphur shelf, chicken mushroom	A distinct bracket fungus		Harvested wild	Edible when watery, after cooking
Leccinum aurantiacum	Red-capped scaber stalk		Eurasia	Harvested wild	Edible cooked, with risk of toxicity; linked to one death
Leccinum scabrum	Birch bolete		Europe, North America and New Zealand	Harvested wild	Edible when firm
Leccinum versipelle (syn. Boletus testaceoscaber)	Orange birch bolete		Europe, Aug.–Nov.	Harvested wild	Edible cooked
Lentinula edodes	Shiitake		Southeast Asia	Commercially cultivated worldwide	Edible; may cause dermatitis for some unless cooked
Macrolepiota procera	Parasol mushroom		Globally widespread in temperate regions	Harvested wild	Choice but resembles some poisonous species
Marasmius oreades	Fairy ring champignon			Harvested wild	Choice
Morchella spp. including Morchella esculenta	Morels	Can resemble poisonous false morels including Gyromitra esculenta	Open scrub, woodland or open ground in late spring	Commercially harvested; difficult to grow commercially	Potentially toxic if uncooked or consumed with alcohol
Phallus indusiatus	Basket stinkhorn			Commercially cultivated	Asian cuisine
Pleurotus ostreatus	Oyster mushroom			Commercially cultivated at an industrial scale	Choice but resembles inedible Lentinellus species
Pseudohydnum gelatinosum	Toothed jelly fungus			Harvested wild	Edible raw
Sparassis crispa	Cauliflower mushroom			Harvested wild	Edible when young; best slow-cooked
Stropharia rugosoannulata	Wine cap			Commercially cultivated	Choice
Suillus bovinus	Bovine bolete			Harvested wild	Edible
Suillus brevipes	Short-stemmed slippery Jack			Harvested wild	Edible
Suillus decipiens				Harvested wild	Edible
Suillus granulatus	Weeping bolete, granulated bolete			Harvested wild	Edible
Suillus grevillei	Tamarack jack			Harvested wild	Edible cooked, with the cap cuticle removed
Suillus luteus	Slippery jack			Harvested wild	Edible with the cap cuticle removed; allergenic for some
Suillus spraguei	Painted suillus			Harvested wild	Edible
Suillus tomentosus	Woolly-capped suillus			Harvested wild	Can cause gastric upset
Tremella fuciformis	White jelly mushroom			Commercially cultivated	Asian sweet dishes for texture
Tricholoma matsutake	Matsutake	Up to 35 cm wide	Eurasia and northern North America in forests	Commercially harvested	Prized in Japanese cuisine but can resemble Inocybe pyriodora, a poisonous species with brown spores
Tricholoma portentosum	Streaked tricholoma	Up to 11 cm wide	Europe and North America, coniferous woodland	Harvested wild	Edible but resembles poisonous relatives
Tricholoma terreum	Grey knight				Edible but can cause rhabdomyolysis if eaten in large quantities
Tuber aestivum	Summer truffle	Up to 10 cm wide	France, Italy and Spain	Commercially harvested
Tuber borchii	Bianchetto truffle			Commercially cultivated (experimental)
Tuber melanosporum	Black truffle		Southern Europe	Commercially cultivated	Choice
Ustilago maydis	Corn smut		Pathogens of cereals	Harvested wild	Considered a delicacy in Mexico; used as fillings in quesadillas, tacos and soups
Verpa bohemica					Edible cooked, initially only in small portions; contains a toxin similar to gyromitrin
Volvariella bombycina	Silky rosegill			Commercially cultivated
Volvariella volvacea	Paddy straw mushroom or straw mushroom			Commercially cultivated

Cultivation

Mushroom and truffle production
2023, tonnes
China	47,143,126
Japan	462,158
United States	302,390
Poland	240,400
Netherlands	205,000
World	50,010,109
Source: FAOSTAT of the United Nations

Mushroom cultivation has a long history, with over twenty species commercially cultivated. Mushrooms are cultivated in at least 60 countries. A fraction of the many fungi consumed by humans are currently cultivated and sold commercially. Commercial cultivation is important ecologically, as there have been concerns of the depletion of larger fungi such as chanterelles in Europe, possibly because the group has grown popular yet remains a challenge to cultivate.^{[citation needed]} Some mushrooms, particularly mycorrhizal species, have not yet been successfully cultivated.^{[citation needed]}

In 2023, world production of commercial mushrooms and recorded truffle collection reported to the Food and Agriculture Organization was 50 million tonnes, led by China with 94% of the total (table).

Safety concerns

Some wild species are toxic, or at least indigestible, when raw. Failure to identify poisonous mushrooms and confusing them with edible ones has resulted in death. Although in the 21st century primitive digital applications exist to aid with identification, these are unreliable and some inexperienced hunters relying upon them have been seriously poisoned.

Deadly poisonous mushrooms that are frequently confused with edible mushrooms and responsible for many fatal poisonings include several species of the genus Amanita, particularly A. phalloides (the death cap). Some mushrooms that are edible for most people can cause allergic reactions in some individuals with no prior knowledge of an allergy; old or improperly stored specimens can go rancid quickly and cause food poisoning. When eating any fungus for the first time, only a small quantity of one species should be consumed at a time, allowing for several hours to identify any potential allergic reaction. Even normally edible species of mushrooms may be dangerous, as certain mushrooms growing in polluted locations can act as chemical-absorbers, accumulating pollutants and heavy metals, including arsenic and iron, sometimes in lethal concentrations. On the other hand, cooking preparations may reduce the toxicity of certain slightly poisonous mushrooms (e.g. Morchellas) enough to be consumed.

Additionally, several varieties of fungi are known and documented to contain psychedelic drugs—the so-called magic mushrooms—yet resemble perfectly edible, non-psychoactive species. While not necessarily lethal to consume, to the uninitiated, an accidentally induced psychedelic experience can run the gamut from benign to terrifying, even depressing or psychotic. The most commonly consumed for recreational psychoactive use are Amanita muscaria (the fly agaric) and Psilocybe cubensis, with the former containing alkaloids such as muscimol and the latter predominately psilocybin.^{[citation needed]} Both have the potential to induce in the user feelings of awe, wonder with nature, interesting visual hallucinations and inner peace (even in mild doses), but excessive or accidental consumption can create feelings of insanity, helplessness and fear, usually persisting for a few hours.^{[citation needed]}

White mushrooms, cooked, boiled, drained, without salt

Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)

Energy

117 kJ (28 kcal)

Carbohydrates

5.3 g

Fat

0.5 g

Protein

2.2 g

Vitamins and minerals


Vitamins	Quantity %DV^†
Vitamin A equiv.	0% 0 μg
Thiamine (B1)	8% 0.1 mg
Riboflavin (B2)	23% 0.3 mg
Niacin (B3)	28% 4.5 mg
Pantothenic acid (B5)	44% 2.2 mg
Vitamin B6	6% 0.1 mg
Folate (B9)	5% 18 μg
Vitamin B12	0% 0 μg
Choline	4% 19.9 mg
Vitamin D	3% 21 IU
Vitamin E	0% 0 mg
Vitamin K	0% 0 μg


Minerals	Quantity %DV^†
Calcium	0% 6 mg
Copper	56% 0.5 mg
Iron	9% 1.7 mg
Magnesium	3% 12 mg
Manganese	4% 0.1 mg
Phosphorus	7% 87 mg
Potassium	12% 356 mg
Selenium	24% 13.4 μg
Zinc	8% 0.9 mg

Other constituents

Quantity

Water

91.1 g

Link to Full USDA Database entry

^†Percentages estimated using US recommendations for adults, except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation from the National Academies.

Nutrition

Boiled Agaricus mushrooms are 92% water, 3% carbohydrates, 3% protein, and 0.3% fat (table). In a reference amount of 100 grams (3.5 oz), boiled white Agaricus mushrooms supply 28 calories of food energy and rich contents (20% or more of the Daily Value, DV) of riboflavin, niacin, and pantothenic acid, copper, and selenium (23-56% DV), with a moderate content of potassium (12% DV, table). Otherwise, raw white mushrooms generally have low amounts of micronutrients (table).

Vitamin D

The content of vitamin D is absent or low unless mushrooms are exposed to sunlight or purposely treated with artificial ultraviolet light, even after harvesting and being processed into dry powder.

Name	Chemical composition	Structure
Vitamin D₁	ergocalciferol with lumisterol, 1:1
Vitamin D₂	ergocalciferol (made from ergosterol)
Vitamin D₃	cholecalciferol (made from 7-Dehydrocholesterol in the skin).

When exposed to UV light before or after harvest, mushrooms convert their large concentrations of ergosterol into vitamin D₂. This is similar to the reaction in humans, where vitamin D₃ is synthesized after exposure to sunlight.

Testing showed an hour of UV light exposure before harvesting made a serving of mushrooms contain twice the U.S. Food and Drug Administration's daily recommendation of vitamin D. With 5 minutes of artificial UV light exposure after harvesting, a serving of mushrooms contained four times as much. Analysis also demonstrated that natural sunlight produced vitamin D₂.

The form of vitamin D found in UV-irradiated mushrooms is ergocalciferol, or vitamin D₂. This is not the same as cholecalciferol, called vitamin D₃, which is produced by UV-irradiation of human or animal skin, fur, and feathers. Although vitamin D₂ has vitamin-D activity in humans, and is widely used in food fortification and nutritional supplements, vitamin D₃ is more commonly used in dairy and cereal products.^{[citation needed]}

Research

As of 2021^[update], mushroom consumption has not been shown to conclusively affect risk factors for cardiovascular diseases.

Uses

The accurate determination of and proper identification of a species is required to ensure its edibility and to safeguard against poisoning.

History

The earliest evidence of consumption of mushrooms comes from 13,000-year-old archaeological sites in Chile.^{[citation needed]} Ötzi, the mummy of a man who lived between 3400 and 3100 BCE in Europe, was found with two types of mushroom in his belongings.^{[citation needed]} Ancient Romans and Greeks, particularly the upper classes, used mushrooms for culinary purposes. Food tasters were employed by Roman emperors to ensure that mushrooms were safe to eat. The Forme of Cury, a 14th-century compilation of medieval English recipes, features a recipe of mushrooms and leeks cooked in broth.

Culinary

A minimal amount of water should be used to clean specimens, ideally in the field. Only select species can be safely eaten raw.

Cooking

Cooking mushrooms before consumption is often required, both to eliminate mycotoxins, including trace levels of toxic hydrazines, and also to improve palatability and texture. Frying, roasting, baking, and microwaving are all used to prepare mushrooms. Cooking lowers the amount of water present in the food. Chitin, a structural polymer in the cell walls of mushrooms, does not break down until 380 °C (716 °F), which is not reached in any normal cooking. However, chitin connections may be broken down by cooking, allowing for easier digestion.

Storage

Mushrooms should be used as soon as possible, even if refrigerated (particularly Coprinus species). Mushrooms can be frozen, but they freeze best when cooked first. Those that do not require cooking can also be canned, dried, pickled, or salted.

In traditional medicine

Medicinal mushrooms are mushrooms or extracts from mushrooms that are thought to be treatments for diseases, yet remain unconfirmed in mainstream science and medicine, and so are not approved as drugs or medical treatments. Such use of mushrooms therefore falls into the domain of traditional medicine for which there is no direct high-quality clinical evidence of efficacy. (Since about the mid-20th century, some compounds found in fungi have been developed scientifically for medicine, e.g. antibiotics.)

Preliminary research on mushroom extracts has been conducted to determine if anti-disease properties exist, such as for polysaccharide-K or lentinan. Some extracts have widespread use in Japan, Korea and China, as potential adjuvants for radiation treatments and chemotherapy.