Gender bias is the tendency to prefer one gender over another. It is a form of unconscious bias, or implicit bias, which occurs when one individual unconsciously attributes certain attitudes and stereotypes to another person or group of people.
Distinctions from sexism
Gender bias and sexism are related but distinct concepts. Sexism is prejudice or discrimination based on sex, often favoring one sex over another. Gender bias is a broader term referring to any bias based on gender. It can affect anyone, including men, women, and those who don't conform to traditional gender norms. While sexism often involves overt discrimination, gender bias can be subtle and unconscious, manifesting as stereotypes, preferences, and unequal treatment.
The surgeon riddle
A father and son are in a horrible car crash that kills the dad. The son is rushed to the hospital; just as he's about to go under the knife, the surgeon says, "I can't operate—that boy is my son!"
When faced with the surgeon riddle, many people unconsciously assume the surgeon is male, even if they consciously hold egalitarian views; this illustrates implicit gender bias. This is distinct from explicit gender bias, which manifests when individuals consciously express prejudiced beliefs, such as preferring male doctors or openly endorsing sexism.
Gender Bias in Education
According to the European Institute for Gender Equality (EIGE), gender bias is defined as "prejudiced actions or thoughts based on the gender-based perception that women are not equal to men in rights and dignity."
School education plays a key part in shaping how students think about gender. Learning materials and teachers have a strong influence on how children learn and understand the world. If the education system presents genders from a distorted perspective, this can negatively influence young learners as it might change how they understand others, how they feel about themselves, and even what subjects or careers they want to choose in the future.
Gender bias in school materials
Gender representation in textbooks
Large-scale and country-specific studies have identified consistent patterns of gender imbalance in school textbooks. A cross-national automated analysis of 1,255 textbooks from 34 countries found that male-related pronouns appeared more than twice as often as female-related ones (178,142 vs. 82,113). After adjustments for book length, grade, and subject, the countries with the lowest levels of female representation included Afghanistan, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, and South Sudan, where fewer than one in three gendered terms referred to women or girls. Substantial variation across subjects is also reported. Female representation was lowest in religious studies and the humanities, while mathematics and science, fields associated with higher labor-market returns, also showed less than equal representation. Home economics contained the highest proportion of female references.
Research from individual countries shows similar patterns. A study of Iranian English-language textbooks (Prospect 1–3) found that male characters appeared more frequently than female characters, with ratios of 1.43:1 and 1.26:1 in the first and third volumes, respectively. Masculine pronouns similarly outnumbered feminine pronouns. Of 341 images depicting humans, 66.6% showed males only and 15% showed females only. Female characters were typically confined to school-based or domestic roles, whereas male characters were depicted across a wide range of social, professional, and leisure contexts.
Studies from China report comparable gender imbalances. An analysis of the Success with English primary school textbook series used in Guangzhou found that male characters made up 60.93% of all illustrated figures, while females accounted for 39.07%. Of 159 named characters mentioned in the texts, 61.64% were male. Male dominance was reinforced by recurring story sections centered on two male student characters, who appeared in every unit. Famous individuals referenced in the series were also overwhelmingly male and drawn from diverse professions, whereas the few notable women mentioned were concentrated in literature, politics, and physics.
Together, these studies indicate that gender imbalance remains a common feature of instructional materials across diverse educational systems.
Gender stereotypical portrayals
Studies consistently show that school textbooks reproduce traditional gender stereotypes through patterns of language use, occupational roles, and depictions of activities. A cross-national computational analysis of 1,255 textbooks found that adjectives associated with women tended to emphasize appearance or domesticity, such as "beautiful," "quiet," or "married". On the other hand, male-associated adjectives included "powerful," "rich," and "wise." Verbs collocating with female terms often referred to domestic labor (e.g., "cook," "bake"), whereas male terms appeared with verbs associated with authority or action (e.g., "rule," "guide," "order"). Occupation terms also displayed a strong gender skew: of the 20 most frequently used job titles, all but "domestic help" and "nurse" co-occurred more often with male nouns or pronouns.
Analysis of the Iranian Prospect textbook series similarly demonstrates gender-differentiated language patterns. Women were predominantly depicted as teachers, nurses, or housewives, whereas men appeared across a broad spectrum of skilled and high-status professions, including mechanics, doctors, soldiers, and pilots. Concordance analysis of pronouns showed that "he" commonly collocated with verbs related to work and public activities, while "she" collocated with domestic verbs such as "cook," reflecting a deeply rooted division of gendered labor.
Research in China has shown similar patterns across mathematics, language, and social studies materials. In elementary mathematics textbooks, males comprised nearly two-thirds of all depicted characters, and were shown performing 74% of the active tasks. Females, by contrast, were represented in passive roles, neatness, and cooperation. In social studies textbooks, occupational stereotypes were extreme: 100% of scientists and soldiers were male, while 100% of teachers and most service workers were female.
Textbook analyses in Vietnam likewise reveal ongoing gendered asymmetries. Across four English textbooks for lower secondary grades, boys and men occupy more verbal space, more expert roles, and more agentive character positions. Female characters appear less frequently, are more often linked to domestic responsibilities, and are depicted as having fewer opportunities and narrower aspirations. Girls are shown as less confident, less independent, and more limited in their choices, while mothers, instead of fathers, bear nearly all household and caregiving roles.
Studies from Belgium show both the persistence and evolution of gender stereotypes. Although newer textbooks in Flanders attempt to incorporate women into STEM, sports, health, and artistic fields, women remain largely absent from physically demanding occupations, entrepreneurial careers, and political roles. Domestic labor is still framed as a primarily feminine responsibility. More noticeably, male characters were disproportionately depicted as unruly, disruptive, or engaging in negative behaviors, which reinforces negative cultural narratives about boys' lack of discipline. Scholars note that such portrayals may influence teachers' perceptions of male students and contribute to gendered differences in academic engagement.
Across national contexts, these findings indicate that stereotypical portrayals of work, family life, personal traits, and agency remain deeply embedded in instructional materials, even in contexts where textbook reforms have aimed to promote gender equality.
Impact on learning
Research across countries shows a consistent positive relationship between balanced gender representation in textbooks and students' academic engagement and performance. Studies in America indicate that Female students showed marked improvements in subjects where gender representation was more equitable. When students saw themselves reflected in their learning materials, their motivation and interest in the subject matter increased. Additionally, inclusive textbooks helped to challenge and reduce gender stereotypes among students. Research on gender bias in Indian secondary school textbooks also shows that disparities in academic performance are linked to the presence of gender-biased content. Female students, in particular, were negatively affected by textbooks that portrayed traditional gender roles and stereotypes. Evidence from China similarly demonstrates that textbooks with balanced gender representation positively affected both boys' and girls' academic results. Students exposed to gender-inclusive textbooks showed greater engagement and higher achievement levels across various subjects.
Cultural and ideological influences
Considering Confucian countries (e.g. China, Korea, Vietnam, Japan, Singapore) have lower gender equality, Confucianism is still a predominant ideology that disadvantages women in terms of gender attitudes.
Iran’s Islamic political-religious ideology imposes a huge influence on how gender is represented in Iranian school textbooks. A 2020 study showed that the post-1979 educational system is explicitly designed to uphold Islamic values and maintain social control, and this orientation is reflected in depictions of gender. For example, all female figures are depicted wearing hijab or chador in dark colours, despite the fact that such dress is not legally required indoors or for young girls in real life. The ideological commitments of the Islamic Republic directly shape the construction of gender in textbooks, reinforcing traditional gender roles and limiting the visibility of women in the public sphere.
Under-representation of LGBTQ
Researchers examined the language and math textbooks for Dutch secondary education and found that in all books for both subjects, this under-representation is evident (0%) as characters belonging to sexual minorities were absent. In the EFL textbooks in Flanders, the visibility of homosexuality in the textbooks has increased. Same-sex couples now account for roughly 6% of depictions, a proportion that broadly aligns with population estimates. Yet their appearances are restricted to chapters on "family," which produces a fragmented representation. Also, the couples are white, middle-class, able-bodied, and conform to conventional gender norms. This lack of intersectional diversity may reinforce narrow stereotypes and limit students' understanding of non-heterosexual identities.
Gender Bias of Teachers
Gender bias in teachers' grading refers to systematic differences in the grades assigned to male and female students that cannot be explained by actual differences in performance. Research shows that because grading frequently relies on teachers' subjective assessments, grades are rarely purely objective indicators of ability. A gender grading gap occurs when teachers assign different grades to boys and girls who demonstrate equivalent levels of academic performance.
General trends
A consistent finding in the literature is that boys, on average, receive lower grades than girls even when cognitive skill levels are comparable.
One explanation involves the role of non-cognitive skills, such as classroom behavior, participation, organization, and effort. Because teachers often incorporate these traits into their grading, students who exhibit higher levels of such behaviors, typically girls, may receive grades that exceed what their test scores alone would predict.
Subject-specific variations
Although the general trend often favors girls, variations appear in specific academic domains. In some STEM subjects, boys may receive higher grades than girls despite identical performance. A study in Israel found that math teachers tended to grade boys more favorably, even when girls demonstrated equal achievement. In the Netherlands, however, average grading in Dutch language and mathematics lessons was not found to be gender-biased, though substantial differences were observed between individual teachers.
Teachers' implicit and explicit gender stereotypes are frequently cited as drivers of the gender grading gap. These stereotypes can differ in both strength and direction. Stereotypical beliefs (e.g., "boys are naturally better at mathematics") and counter-stereotypical beliefs (e.g., "boys are really good at languages") can influence how teachers interpret students' effort and performance.
Research indicates that double standards may emerge: high effort is often viewed as "expected" for girls but "exceptional" for boys. As a result, boys may receive disproportionately positive evaluations for the same effort that girls exhibit.
Teacher gender may also shape grading patterns. For instance, female math teachers in one study held weaker implicit stereotypes about boys' superiority in mathematics than male teachers. These weaker stereotypical expectations corresponded with more equitable grading practices.
Consequences and long-term effects
Gender-biased grading can affect students' academic trajectories and long-term outcomes.
Academic progress
In some contexts, bias favoring girls has been associated with improved academic progress relative to boys. However, bias does not uniformly benefit girls. Research from Chile found that being consistently over-graded may lead some girls to reduce their academic effort, negatively influencing long-term achievement, particularly in language subjects.
Human capital development
Long-term consequences have been documented in STEM fields. Biased grading that favors boys in math and science can discourage girls from enrolling in advanced courses, ultimately affecting university major choices and labor-market outcomes.
Contemporary efforts and emerging concerns
According to the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), gender bias remains a persistent global issue. International organizations such as UNESCO and UNDP advocate for gender-transformative practices in education, which aim to challenge gender norms and broader inequalities. These approaches emphasize recognising marginalized groups, respecting diverse identities, and presenting them in ways that promote empowerment. However, analyses of existing policies suggest that while many initiatives focus on addressing biases affecting women and girls, they may offer less comprehensive coverage of other marginalized gender identities.
Progress has been documented in educational materials, particularly printed curricula. A 2019 study by Van Dyck et al. found that recent textbooks show measurable improvements in gender representation compared to earlier editions. Quantitatively, the historical underrepresentation of female figures has been largely replaced by numerical parity. Qualitatively, disparities related to public versus private sphere roles and the portrayal of women primarily in relational terms have significantly diminished.
An emerging concern involves the growing use of artificial intelligence (AI) in education and the potential for algorithmic gender bias. Algorithmic bias refers to mechanisms that compound and amplify existing gender inequities within systems. OConner et al., have argued that although AI can reproduce systemic biases, it can also be deliberately designed to mitigate them. As AI becomes increasingly integrated into global education systems, Yin et al. emphasize that these systems require "careful design and rigorous review" alongside joint efforts by stakeholders to ensure they do not encode and perpetuate systemic biases. .
Gender bias in artificial intelligence
Gender bias in artificial intelligence refers to the circumstances in which AI systems reflect and perpetuate existing societal biases, leading to unfair or discriminatory results. These biases can manifest in various ways.
Gender bias in colors
Gender bias can manifest as a type of color bias that reinforces societal association of certain colors with specific genders, particularly pink with girls and blue with boys, which can perpetuate harmful stereotypes. This bias is a relatively modern construct.
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