Kerala is a state on the Malabar Coast of India. It was formed on 1 November 1956 under the States Reorganisation Act, which unified the country's Malayalam-speaking regions into a single state. Covering 38,863 km2 (15,005 sq mi), it is bordered by Karnataka to the north and northeast, Tamil Nadu to the east and south, and the Laccadive Sea to the west. With 33 million inhabitants according to the 2011 census, Kerala is the 13th-most populous state in India. It is divided into 14 districts, with Thiruvananthapuram as the capital. Malayalam is the most widely spoken language and, along with English, serves as an official language of the state.
Kerala | |
|---|---|
A houseboat in the Kerala backwaters | |
| Nickname: "God's Own Country" | |
Location of Kerala in India | |
| Coordinates: 10°00′N 76°18′E / 10.0°N 76.3°E | |
| Country | India |
| Region | South India |
| Previously was | Travancore–Cochin Malabar district South Canara |
| Formation | 1 November 1956 |
| Capital | Thiruvananthapuram |
| Districts | 14 |
| Government | |
| • Body | Government of Kerala |
| • Governor | Rajendra Arlekar |
| • Chief Minister | Pinarayi Vijayan (CPI(M)) |
| • Chief Secretary | A. Jayathilak |
| State Legislature | Unicameral |
| • Assembly | Kerala Legislative Assembly (140 seats) |
| National Parliament | Parliament of India |
| • Rajya Sabha | 9 seats |
| • Lok Sabha | 20 seats |
| High Court | Kerala High Court |
| Area | |
• Total | 38,863 km2 (15,005 sq mi) |
| • Rank | 21st |
| Dimensions | |
| • Length | 560 km (350 mi) |
| • Width | 70 km (43 mi) |
| Elevation | 900 m (3,000 ft) |
| Highest elevation (Anamudi) | 2,695 m (8,842 ft) |
| Lowest elevation (Kuttanad) | −2.7 m (−8.9 ft) |
| Population (2025) | |
• Total | 36,111,000 |
| • Rank | 13th |
| • Density | 890/km2 (2,300/sq mi) |
| • Urban | 79.42% |
| • Rural | 20.58% |
| Demonym(s) | Keralite, Malayali |
| Language | |
| • Official | Malayalam, English |
| GDP | |
| • Total (2025-26) | $167.90 billion (nominal) $707.26 billion (PPP) |
| • Rank | 11th |
| • Per capita | ₹317,723 (US$3,800) (nominal) $19,586 (PPP) (11th) |
| Time zone | UTC+05:30 (IST) |
| ISO 3166 code | IN-KL |
| Vehicle registration | KL |
| HDI (2022) | 0.758 High (2nd) |
| Literacy (2024) | 95.3% (4th) |
| Sex ratio (2025) | 1084♀/1000 ♂ (17th) |
| Website | kerala |
| Symbols of Kerala | |
| Foundation day | 1 November |
| Bird | Great hornbill |
| Butterfly | Papilio buddha |
| Fish | Green chromide |
| Flower | Golden shower tree |
| Fruit | Jackfruit |
| Mammal | Indian elephant |
| Tree | Coconut Tree |
| State highway mark | |
| State highway of Kerala SH KL1 – SH KL79 | |
| List of Indian state symbols | |
Kerala has been a prominent exporter of spices since 3000 BCE. The Chera dynasty, the first major kingdom in the region, rose to prominence through maritime commerce but often faced invasions from the neighbouring Chola and Pandya dynasties. In the 15th century, the spice trade attracted Portuguese traders to Kerala, initiating European colonisation in India.
After Indian independence in 1947, Travancore and Cochin acceded to the newly formed republic and were merged in 1949 to form the state of Travancore-Cochin. In 1956, the modern state of Kerala was formed by merging the Malabar district, Travancore-Cochin (excluding four southern taluks), and the Kasargod taluk of South Kanara.
Kerala has the highest Human Development Index, at 0.784 in 2018; the highest literacy rate, 96.2% in 2018; the highest life expectancy, at 77.3 years; and the highest sex ratio, with 1,084 women per 1,000 men and the lowest positive population growth rate in India (3.44%). It is the least impoverished and the second-most urbanised state in the country. The state has witnessed significant emigration, particularly to the Arab states of the Persian Gulf during the Gulf Boom of the 1970s and early 1980s, and its economy relies heavily on remittances from a large Malayali expatriate population. Hinduism is practised by more than 54% of the population, followed by Islam and Christianity. The culture is a synthesis of Aryan and Dravidian traditions, shaped over millennia by influences from across India and abroad.
The production of black pepper and natural rubber contributes significantly to the national output. In the agricultural sector, coconut, tea, coffee, cashew, and spices are important crops. The state has a coastline of 595 kilometres (370 mi), and 1.1 million people depend on the fishing industry, which accounts for around 3% of the state's income. The economy is largely service sector oriented, while the primary sector contributes a comparatively smaller share.
Kerala has the highest media exposure in India, with newspapers published in nine languages, primarily Malayalam and English. Named as one of the ten paradises of the world by National Geographic Traveler, Kerala is one of the prominent tourist destinations of India, with coconut-lined sandy beaches, backwaters, hill stations, Ayurvedic tourism and tropical greenery as its major attractions.
Etymology
The word Kerala is first recorded as Keralaputo ('son of Chera [s]') in a 3rd-century-BCE rock inscription left by the Maurya emperor Ashoka (274–237 BCE), one of his edicts pertaining to welfare. At that time, one of three states in the region was called Cheralam in Classical Tamil: Chera and Kera are variants of the same word. The word Cheral refers to the oldest known dynasty of Kerala kings and is derived from the Old Tamil word for 'lake'. Keralam may stem from the Classical Tamil cherive-alam 'declivity of a hill or a mountain slope' or chera alam 'land of the Cheras'. One folk etymology derives Kerala from the Malayalam word kera 'coconut tree' and alam 'land'; thus, 'land of coconuts', which is a nickname for the state used by locals due to the abundance of coconut trees. Kerala was alternatively called Malabar in the foreign trade circles. From the time of Cosmas Indicopleustes (6th century CE) itself, the Arab sailors used to call Kerala Male.[citation needed]
History
Legend
In stories of the Dashavatara from Hindu mythology, the lands of Kerala were recovered from the sea by the axe-wielding warrior sage Parashurama, the sixth avatar (incarnation) of Vishnu. As a result, Kerala is traditionally referred to as Parashurama Kshetram ("The Land of Parashurama"). According to legend, Parashurama threw his axe across the sea, and the water receded to the point where it landed. This land that emerged extended from Gokarna to Kanyakumari. The land that emerged was saline and uninhabitable, so Parashurama invoked the snake king Vasuki, who spat holy poison to purify the soil, transforming it into fertile land. Out of respect, Vasuki and all snakes were appointed as guardians of the land. The legend was expanded and codified in the 17th or 18th century text Keralolpathi. It links the origin of early Kerala institutions—such as land tenure and administration—to Parashurama's story. In medieval times, the Chera king Chenkuttuvan may have emulated the Parashurama tradition by throwing his spear into the sea to symbolise his lordship over it.
A prominent Puranic figure associated with Kerala is Mahabali, an asura and archetypal just king who is said to have ruled the earth from Kerala. He defeated the devas in battle, driving them into exile. In response, the devas appealed to Vishnu, who assumed his fifth avatar as Vamana and, to restore order, pushed Mahabali down to Patala (the netherworld). According to popular belief, Mahabali returns to Kerala once a year, which is commemorated as the Onam festival. The Matsya Purana, one of the oldest among the 18 Puranas, situates the story of Matsya—the first avatar of Vishnu—and king Manu, the first man and ruler of the region—in the Malaya Mountains of Kerala and Tamil Nadu.
Pre-history
A substantial portion of present-day Kerala is believed to have been submerged under the sea in ancient times. The discovery of marine fossils near Changanassery supports this hypothesis. Prehistoric archaeological discoveries in Kerala include Neolithic-era dolmens in the Marayur region of the Idukki district, locally known as muniyara—from muni (hermit or sage) and ara (dolmen). Rock engravings in the Edakkal caves in Wayanad date back to the Neolithic period, around 6000 BCE. Archaeological studies have identified Mesolithic, Neolithic and Megalithic sites throughout the region. These findings indicate that the development of early Kerala society and culture began in the Paleolithic Age and progressed through the Mesolithic, Neolithic and Megalithic periods. Foreign cultural interactions also played a role in shaping this development; some historians suggest possible connections with the Indus Valley Civilisation during the late Bronze Age and early Iron Age.
Ancient history
Kerala has been a major spice exporter since at least 3000 BCE, according to Sumerian records, and it is continues to be referred to as the "Garden of Spices" or as the "Spice Garden of India". The region's spices attracted ancient Babylonians, Assyrians, and Egyptians to the Malabar Coast during the 3rd and 2nd millennia BCE. Arabs and Phoenicians also established trade links with Kerala during this period. The land of Keralaputra was one of four independent kingdoms in southern India during the time of Emperor Ashoka, alongside the Chola, Pandya, and Satiyaputra kingdoms. Scholars generally identify Keralaputra as another name for the Cheras, the earliest major dynasty based in Kerala. These southern territories once shared a common language and cultural framework, within a region historically known as Tamilakam. While the Cheras governed most of what is now Kerala, the southern tip of the region fell under the control of the Pandyas, whose trading port is sometimes identified in ancient Western sources as Nelcynda (or Neacyndi). Later, control of the region alternated among the Pandyas, Cheras, and Cholas. The Ays and Mushikas were two other dynasties of ancient Kerala, located to the south and north of the Chera territory, respectively.
By the last centuries BCE, the coast had become an important hub for Greek and Roman trade, particularly in black pepper. The Cheras maintained commercial links with Ancient China, West Asia, Egypt, Greece, and the Roman Empire. In foreign trade records, the region was referred to as Male or Malabar. Principal ports of the time included Muziris, Berkarai, and Nelcynda. The value of Rome's annual trade with Kerala has been estimated at around 50 million sesterces. Contemporary Sangam literature describes Roman ships arriving at Muziris, laden with gold in exchange for pepper. One of the earliest Western traders to navigate the monsoon winds to reach Kerala was Eudoxus of Cyzicus, who made the voyage around 118 or 166 BCE under the patronage of Ptolemy VIII, king of the Hellenistic Ptolemaic dynasty in Egypt. Roman establishments in the region's port cities—including a temple of Augustus and barracks for garrisoned Roman soldiers—are recorded in the Tabula Peutingeriana, the only surviving map of the Roman cursus publicus.
Merchants from West Asia and Southern Europe established coastal posts and settlements in Kerala. The Jewish connection with Kerala is believed to date back to 573 BCE. Arab traders had links with Kerala from at least the 4th century BCE; Herodotus (484–413 BCE) noted that goods brought by Arabs from Kerala were sold to Jews in Eden. These Arab traders intermarried with local communities, leading to the formation of the Muslim Mappila community. In the 4th century CE, some Christians migrated from Persia and joined the early Syrian Christian community, which traces its origins to the evangelistic activities of Thomas the Apostle in the 1st century CE. The term Mappila—originally an honorific applied to esteemed foreign visitors—later became associated with the descendants of Jewish, Syrian Christian, and Muslim immigrants, leading to the terms Juda Mappilas, Nasrani Mappilas, and Muslim Mappilas, respectively. According to the traditions of these communities, some of the earliest religious establishments in India were built in Kerala. These include the Saint Thomas Christian churches, the Cheraman Juma Masjid (established in 629 CE), India's first mosque, and the Paradesi Synagogue (built in 1568 CE), the oldest active synagogue in the Commonwealth of Nations.
Medieval period
A second Chera kingdom (c. 800–1102), also known as the Kulasekhara dynasty of Mahodayapuram, was founded by Kulasekhara Varman and governed over a territory comprising most of present-day Kerala and parts of modern Tamil Nadu. During the early phase of the Kulasekara period, the southern region—from Nagerkovil to Thiruvalla—was controlled by the Ay dynasty. By the 10th century, however, the Ays had lost their power, and the region was incorporated into the Kulashekara realm. Under Kulashekhara rule, Kerala experienced a flourishing period marked by developments in art, literature, trade, and the Bhakti movement within Hinduism. It was during this time that a distinct Keralite identity began to emerge, separate from Tamil culture, particularly through linguistic differentiation. For administrative purposes, the kingdom was divided into provinces governed by local chieftains called Naduvazhis. Each province was further subdivided into desams, which were overseen by Desavazhis.
A series of Chera–Chola conflicts in the 11th century disrupted foreign trade through Kerala's ports. During this period, Buddhism and Jainism, which had previously coexisted with Hinduism, declined and eventually disappeared from the region. Social structures became increasingly rigid, and caste divisions deepened. The Kulashekhara dynasty ultimately fell in 1102 CE following a combined assault by the Later Pandyas and Later Cholas. In the 14th century, Ravi Varma Kulashekhara (r. 1299–1314) of the southern Venad kingdom briefly established a short-lived supremacy over much of southern India. Following his death, and in the absence of a strong central authority, the region fragmented into thirty small, frequently warring principalities. Among the most powerful were the kingdom of Samuthiri (Zamorin) in the north, Venad in the south and Kochi in the central region. In the 18th century, King Anizham Thirunal Marthanda Varma of Travancore launched a series of military campaigns and annexed territories up to northern Kerala, establishing Travancore as the dominant power in the region. The Kochi ruler sued for peace, and the Malabar region eventually came under direct British rule until Indian independence in 1947.
Colonial rule
During the High and Late Middle Ages, Arab traders held a maritime monopoly over the spice trade in the Indian Ocean. This dominance was challenged during the European Age of Discovery when the spice trade—particularly in black pepper—became a major focus of European commercial activity. By the 15th century, the Portuguese had begun asserting control over eastern maritime routes, culminating in Vasco Da Gama's arrival at Kappad, near Kozhikode (Calicut), in 1498. The Zamorin of Kozhikode granted the Portuguese permission to trade with his subjects, leading to the establishment of a prosperous Portuguese factory and fort.
However, tensions arose when the Portuguese attacked Arab traders operating under the Zamorin's protection, causing a breakdown in relations. Seizing the opportunity presented by rivalry between the Zamorin and the King of Kochi, the Portuguese allied with Kochi. When Francisco de Almeida was appointed Viceroy of Portuguese India in 1505, he established his headquarters at Fort Kochi (Fort Emmanuel), rather than in Kozhikode. Under his administration, the Portuguese consolidated their influence by building several fortifications along the Malabar Coast. Despite these advances, the Portuguese faced significant resistance from the Zamorin's naval forces, particularly under the command of the Kunjali Marakkars—admirals of Kozhikode—who launched effective maritime campaigns. This resistance eventually forced the Portuguese to seek a treaty. In 1571, the Zamorin's forces defeated the Portuguese in the Battle of Chaliyam Fort, marking a major setback for Portuguese ambitions in the region.
The Portuguese were eventually supplanted by the Dutch East India Company, which capitalised on ongoing conflicts between the Kozhikode and Kochi to gain control over trade in the region. However, the Dutch too faced military resistance, most notably from Marthanda Varma of the Travancore royal family. After a decisive Dutch defeat at the Battle of Colachel in 1741, the Treaty of Mavelikkara was signed in 1753, forcing the Dutch to withdraw from regional political affairs and confining their role to trade. Marthanda Varma continued his military campaigns, establishing Travancore as the preeminent power in Kerala.
In 1766, Hyder Ali, ruler of Mysore, invaded northern Kerala, and his son and successor, Tipu Sultan, launched military campaigns against the expanding British East India Company. These confrontations contributed to two of the four Anglo-Mysore Wars. By the early 1790s, Tipu Sultan was forced to cede the Malabar district and South Kanara to the British, and these regions were annexed into the Madras Presidency of British India in 1792. The British East India Company also secured tributary alliances with Kochi in 1791 and Travancore in 1795. By the end of 18th century, the entirety of Kerala was either directly administered by the British or under their suzerainty.
In the 20th century, Kerala was the site of several major uprisings during the Indian independence movement. Among the most notable was the 1921 Malabar Rebellion, in which Mappila Muslims of the Malabar region rioted against Hindu zamindars (landlords) and British colonial authorities. Social reform moments also gained momentum during this period, particularly those challenging caste-based discrimination. A major milestone was the Temple Entry Proclamation of 1936 in Travancore, which granted lower-caste Hindus the right to enter temples previously restricted to upper castes.
State of India
After the Partition of India in 1947 into the independent dominions of India and Pakistan, the princely states of Travancore and Kochi acceded to the Union of India. On 1 July 1949, the two states were merged to form Travancore-Cochin. On 1 November 1956, the taluk of Kasargod from the South Kanara district of Madras, the Malabar district of Madras State (excluding Gudalur taluk of Nilgiris district, Lakshadweep, Topslip, and the Attappadi forest east of Anakatti), and the state of Travancore-Cochin—excluding four southern taluks (Kanyakumari district and Shenkottai taluks), which were transferred to Tamil Nadu—were merged to form the state of Kerala under the States Reorganisation Act. A Communist-led government under E. M. S. Namboodiripad was formed following the first elections for the new Kerala Legislative Assembly in 1957. It was among the earliest democratically elected Communist governments in the world, following Communist electoral success in the Republic of San Marino in 1945.
Geography
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